The author: Jim Knight, research associate, University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning. A version of this article originally appeared in the February 2001 issue of Stratenotes, a newsletter for SIM Professional Developers.
What can Strategic Instruction Model Trainers do so that teachers have the opportunity to work out their own "reformulation" of strategies or routines covered during workshops? This question stands at the heart of the research on Teacher-Guided Professional Development (TGPD) conducted over the past six years at the University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning. TGPD is intended to offer a number of simple tools professional developers can use to avoid the problems inherent in a too-inflexible approach to training. Among the tools offered by TGPD are process structures, simple activities that facilitators can use to guide groups through various stages of professional development, such as needs assessment and implementation planning.
This article describes process structures that facilitators can use to enable teachers to surface and solve problems as they learn about learning strategies or teaching routines.
Process structures are intended to give shape and form to the messiness of people learning together. Perhaps nothing is messier than a group of people trying to find solutions to problems together. Nonetheless, failing to identify and solve problems during training frequently ensures that teachers won't implement a new intervention after training.
If teachers are going to solve problems with interventions, they need to identify them. A simple device (the Yeah, But form) is one tool professional developers can use to enable teachers to record thoughts about issues related to implementation. The professional developer hands out the form during sessions, and then at different points during the workshop, offers teachers opportunities to fill it out.
After the "training" portion of a session has been completed, professional developers can then guide groups to find solutions to the obstacles identified through use of the Yeah, But form. Many problem-solving strategies have been developed, and if a school has adopted a particular model, facilitators may find it preferable to use the school model. However, when a school has not adopted a preferred model, professional developers may choose to use the FIND Strategy. This strategy, which brings together a number of process structures, involves four simple steps:
This step has two parts. First, participants decide whether a problem is worth trying to solve. Problems worth solving, generally speaking, have to meet two criteria:
Second, after a group decides a problem is worth trying to solve, it needs to rephrase the problem as a challenge. Frequently, when people discuss the challenges and problems they face, the way they describe their problems makes finding a solution more difficult because they state it in terms that are entirely negative. For example, they might say, "I don't have enough time to rewrite my textbook to include a partnership perspective" or "My students don't get enough support at home to keep them motivated." When we state problems in this way, focusing on the barriers, we are tempted to write off solutions as too difficult.
An alternative is to describe a challenge in a statement that focuses on the solution. Rather than describing the challenge or barrier, state the problem so that it describes the desired outcome. For example, rather than saying, "I don't have enough time to rewrite my textbook," say "How can I find a way to ensure that my students learn about important female scientists?" A simple shift in the way the problem is stated may enable individuals or groups to find solutions that otherwise might have been overlooked.
A leverage point can be understood as the spot in a system where an intervention can have the greatest effect. For that reason, identifying leverage points is an essential part of problem solving. Some leverage points are obvious; others often are difficult to uncover. For example, a person who is extremely thirsty might well be more motivated by water that is free than by a large sum of money. Water in such a case is an obvious leverage point. At most other times, however, the issue is more complicated, and that is especially true when we are exploring complex problems with human beings.
The Toyota Motor Corporation, which has long recognized the importance of leverage, uses a simple strategy for identifying leverage: "The Five Whys." At Toyota, when people are confronted with a problem, they try to identify leverage points by repeatedly asking "why?" as they explore the thorny, intertwined aspects of a problem. For example, a teacher using this strategy might have the following internal dialogue:
"I'm feeling burned out as a teacher."
Why?
"Because I'm not enjoying teaching."
Why?
"Because my students don't seem to like my classes as much as they did two years ago."
Why?
"Because, well, I guess that's because I'm tired and just not as prepared as I used to be."
Why?
"Because I've committed to being involved in far too many extra-curricular activities, and my time for planning and resting has been significantly reduced."
Having used the "Five Whys" strategy, the teacher now knows a leverage point; all that remains is finding a solution to the problem. Of course, finding a solution to her problem, being too involved in non-teaching aspects of the school, is still a significant challenge.
Once a leverage point has been identified, a group should be guided to invent a wide variety of solutions. Two process structures, brainstorming and clustering, can be used to generate a long list of possible solutions.
Brainstorming is a very popular, and often misused, process structure that can be used to enable a group to generate a large number of ideas. When using this process structure, facilitators present an issue or problem and ask the group to suggest many possible ideas or solutions. The facilitator records every comment offered by participants on a flip chart, white/black board, computer program linked to a projector, or in some other way that enables everyone to see the results. The facilitator's goal is to involve the entire group in generating an extensive list, with each new idea inspiring still more new ideas or suggestions. When done correctly, brainstorming can be an inspiring experience that energizes all of the participants in the session.
Brainstorming is most effective when the following guidelines are followed:
Developed and popularized by Tony Buzan in Mindmaps and Gabriel Rico in her Writing the Natural Way, clustering (or mindmapping) is an easy-to-use process structure that individuals and groups can use to generate and organize ideas. For some, clustering is so easy that it seems like doodling with the brain, yet clustering is also a very powerful way to efficiently generate and sort ideas or, in other words, to create clusters of ideas.
Clustering can be used to plan or problem solve, create or invent. Individuals use clustering for such tasks as pre-writing, time-management, money management, or priority setting. Similarly, groups can use clustering to generate lists of possible solutions for problems, to create a list of activities teachers will need to complete to be ready to use a learning strategy, or to enable a group of teachers to sort which essential concepts will be taught in which grades.
Although it is generally considered an independent activity, clustering is also a group process structure. Facilitators can lead groups to use it by completing the following steps:
Clustering is an easy-to-use process structure that is usually quite enjoyable. This process structure enables groups to quickly invent and organize a large number of ideas.
Some facilitators, comfortable using computers and projectors, may prefer to use a computer software program, such as Inspiration, to facilitate clustering. Rather than writing ideas on flip-chart paper, the facilitator can type the idea into a computer and project the developing clusters for the entire group to see. Also, the computer program can be edited easily (it's difficult to make changes on flip-chart paper once the ideas have been written with a marker), and once the diagrams are developed, they can be printed and copied for each member of the group.
Once a list of possible solutions has been generated, group members must choose the one solution they consider to be the best. A group can choose the best solution for its specific circumstances by selecting criteria by which each possible solution will be judged and then applying the criteria. Although numerous criteria are insightful, two criteria are especially useful. Frequently, the best solution is the one that (1) will have the greatest effect and (2) is easiest to implement.
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